constexpr specifier (since C++11)

#include <iostream>
#include <stdexcept>
 
// C++11 constexpr functions use recursion rather than iteration
constexpr int factorial(int n)
{
    return n <= 1 ? 1 : (n * factorial(n - 1));
}
 
// C++14 constexpr functions may use local variables and loops
#if __cplusplus >= 201402L
constexpr int factorial_cxx14(int n)
{
    int res = 1;
    while (n > 1)
        res *= n--;
    return res;
}
#endif // C++14
 
// A literal class
class conststr
{
    const char* p;
    std::size_t sz;
public:
    template<std::size_t N>
    constexpr conststr(const char(&a)[N]): p(a), sz(N - 1) {}
 
    // constexpr functions signal errors by throwing exceptions
    // in C++11, they must do so from the conditional operator ?:
    constexpr char operator[](std::size_t n) const
    {
        return n < sz ? p[n] : throw std::out_of_range("");
    }
 
    constexpr std::size_t size() const { return sz; }
};
 
// C++11 constexpr functions had to put everything in a single return statement
// (C++14 does not have that requirement)
constexpr std::size_t countlower(conststr s, std::size_t n = 0,
                                             std::size_t c = 0)
{
    return n == s.size() ? c :
        'a' <= s[n] && s[n] <= 'z' ? countlower(s, n + 1, c + 1)
                                   : countlower(s, n + 1, c);
}
 
// An output function that requires a compile-time constant, for testing
template<int n>
struct constN
{
    constN() { std::cout << n << '\n'; }
};
 
int main()
{
    std::cout << "4! = ";
    constN<factorial(4)> out1; // computed at compile time
 
    volatile int k = 8; // disallow optimization using volatile
    std::cout << k << "! = " << factorial(k) << '\n'; // computed at run time
 
    std::cout << "The number of lowercase letters in \"Hello, world!\" is ";
    constN<countlower("Hello, world!")> out2; // implicitly converted to conststr
 
    constexpr int a[12] = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8};
    constexpr int length_a = sizeof a / sizeof(int); // std::size(a) in C++17,
                                                      // std::ssize(a) in C++20
    std::cout << "Array of length " << length_a << " has elements: ";
    for (int i = 0; i < length_a; ++i)
        std::cout << a[i] << ' ';
    std::cout << '\n';
}